Makeup may seem like a modern invention, one that has developed into a multi-billion-dollar industry, but cosmetics have been around for longer than we might think. Even flamingos have been observed applying “makeup”, so why not humans in early civilizations? But we shall start our story where the trail of solid evidence begins: the land of the pharaohs.
For the ancient Egyptians, personal appearance had significant cultural and religious value. It was so important that “The Book of the Dead” prohibits one from speaking in the afterlife unless one is presentable. The book rules that the departed may only declaim the critical “Spell 125,” which includes the “weighing of the heart” ritual, only if one is clean, wears eyeliner, is dressed respectfully in white sandals and fresh clothes, and is anointed with the finest myrrh oil – which is a lot to ask from a dead person.
The inhabitants of the Nile were among the first to record their beauty rituals and makeup techniques. A skincare routine was essential to wealthy Egyptian women, who were no strangers to prepping their skin before applying makeup. They exfoliated with sea salt, applied hydrating masks, and depilated by sugaring: using a paste made from honey and sugar, a technique practiced to this day.
Fragrances were in much demand too. A great favorite over the ages was kyphi, a perfume or incense smelling “sweetly of honey and elevating the senses”. It was described in a papyrus dating to 1552 B.C.E. and according to Plutarch, who had a soft spot for trivia, the perfume’s true magic was released at night. It calmed anxiety, promoted sleep, and “brightened” dreams (a paid endorsement?).
Yet makeup in Ancient Egypt wasn’t just about pleasing the senses or calming a tormented soul. Cosmetics were deemed to have spiritual and protective values against evil influences and harmful daily elements.
For instance, eyeliner made from kohl had a practical purpose beyond beautifying the wearer and was applied as early as 4,000 B.C.E. by both women and men, to protect against the glare of the desert sun. Lead-based mineral found in kohl also had antibacterial properties, but unfortunately, when applied regularly, it reportedly also caused insomnia, eye irritability, and some researchers even suggest – mental impairment.
Red lips were much in fashion then too. The ultimate queen of seduction, Cleopatra, was using crushed beetles to obtain her perfect shade of red, if we are to believe the ancient sources.
No pain, no gain: The ugly price of beauty
Ancient Greeks and Romans were no strangers to makeup either, but their attitudes were a mix.
The most common makeup was white lead, which women used as a foundation. Contrary to popular belief, the inhabitants of the ancient world seem to have been well aware of the toxic effects that the lead carbonate had on their health. Roman sources describe the symptoms of lead poisoning in great detail, but the desire for pale skin seems to have been stronger than common sense. Why? Because pale skin was associated with a leisurely lifestyle, while dark skin and blemishes were regarded as a sign of neglect and manual work outdoors. Hence, women powdered themselves with the toxin to obtain a “flawless” look, some perhaps testing their luck, and others considering that beauty comes at a price (no pain, no gain).
Pliny the Elder wrote that although cerussa (white lead) gives a fair complexion (before it starts to eat away the skin), it is nevertheless deadly. There were also safer and cheaper alternatives, for instance, chalk, but white lead more effective in providing coverage.
There was also another “danger”: exposure to the elements. A drop of sweat or heat could have embarrassing consequences for a makeup lover. The Roman poet Martial notes how makeup dissolves when coming into contact with fluids or sun: “So, if you trust your mirror and me, you will fear laughter as Spanius fears the wind and Priscus a touch, as powdered Fabulla fears a rain shower, as painted Sabella fears the sun.”
Martial further states that a well-powdered face lacks charm and needs a dimple, some sort of a “perfect imperfection”, to be considered attractive – a rather unusual and modern approach at the time.
Although a pale face was desired, it didn’t have to look anemic. A healthy complexion came with a subtle touch of pink (a sign of youth and vitality), that was achieved with the help of clay pigments, colorants made from fruits, and even the toxic mercury sulfide.
The scam of the bad women
As for the eyes, there was the good old kohl. But there were more handy alternatives: ash and soot from oil lamps.
Some historians posit that eye makeup was only used by prostitutes since the female gaze was connected to sexuality, and over-highlighting it was deemed inappropriate for respectable women. A slight exaggeration, even if there was undoubtedly a link between pronounced eye makeup and prostitution in ancient Greece and Rome.
The reality is that nearly all ancient written sources exploring the world of cosmetics were written by men and their main topic is how makeup on women affects men and how men feel about women using makeup.
The Graeco-Roman writers often associated makeup with dishonesty. The modern Italian word for makeup is trucco (trick), which is in keeping with the accounts of ancient authors who regarded makeup as proof of infidelity and even sexual immorality. After all, why would an honest woman apply such nonsense if not to attract or keep a lover? Pleasing the husband seemed perhaps to some unnecessary or improbable. The Roman poet Juvenal went so far as to state that “a woman buys scents and lotions with adultery in mind” (a slight oversimplification for such a penetrating mind even if perfumes can mask the smell of intercourse or alcohol). There was also Seneca, who strongly advocated against the use of cosmetics, as he believed they were partly responsible for the decline of morality in Rome.
Speaking of morality, intentionally visible makeup was attributed not merely to lustful women but primarily to prostitutes. The orderly Romans required by law that prostitutes dye their hair blond or wear blond wigs to set themselves apart, but heavy makeup was another means prostitutes used to attract potential clients by trashing the expected female modesty rule.
A “respected” femina would lean toward the “no-makeup makeup” look, enhancing her natural appearance without deforming the reality. The elegiac poet Sextus Propertius wrote that “looks as nature bestowed them are always most becoming”, while Seneca the Younger, in a letter to his mother, praised her for never defiling her face with paints and other absurdities.
Overall, the general rhetoric was that makeup is an instrument of manipulation conceived to deceive good men, making them believe that a woman is more beautiful than she really is. A woman who uses makeup is not only self-absorbed but, above all, is a scam.
In the “Oikonomikos” by Xenophon, Ischomachos, an Athenian husband, tells Socrates about the time he caught his young wife wearing makeup. He proudly describes to the philosopher how he reprimanded her for the disgraceful act and explained why she should never do it again: a woman who wears makeup is like a man who overplays his status and wealth.
Neither was Socrates a fan of cosmetics. In his Socratic dialogue “Gorgias”, the Athenian philosopher Plato depicts his teacher denouncing rhetoric as false pretense. To make his point, Socrates compared rhetoric to things he regarded as dishonest, among others: the nasty cosmetics.
But there was much more at stake than the concern with female integrity. Makeup represented a danger: too much liberty in a society ruled by men. After all, were women not to be trained to become good and productive wives? Ancient writers mention makeup as time-consuming – a major “inconvenience” for women who needed to attend to their daily household duties. The recurring warning was that those who focus on their appearance become lazy. Greek and Roman literature praises hard-working women, describing them as beautiful in body and mind. Of course, those who needed to attend to their daily responsibilities, like managing the household and taking care of the kids, would find makeup unpractical. Also, maintaining it all day would be challenging.
The reality is that most women in ancient Greece and Rome apparently never “painted” their faces, for any or all of the above reasons, or wore makeup only on certain occasions.
Express yourself
Back to ancient writers. The Roman poet Ovid was among the few to “endorse” the use of cosmetics, even writing a didactic poem entitled “Remedies for female faces”, in which he presents them as an inevitable element of urban living. “Learn what treatment may enhance your face, girls, and the means by which you must preserve your looks,” he begins, then goes onto the remarkable effects of certain cosmetics and five must-try facial treatment recipes.
Ovid also provides additional advice for women: a woman should never apply makeup in a male’s company, for the process takes away the appreciation of the final result. A clever woman keeps her beauty products away from the male gaze, like a dirty little secret: “So while you are at your toilet, let us think that you are asleep. It is more fitting you should be seen when the last touch has been given. Why must I know the cause of the whiteness of your cheek? Shut your chamber door. Why show the unfinished work? There is much that it befits men not to know.”
Ultimately, the purpose of beauty products, according to the poet, is for a woman to feel beautiful. Pleasing others is of secondary concern. Maria Wyke, Professor of Latin at the University College London, notes that “it is perhaps Ovid who most provocatively and persistently removed the cultus and ornatus of the female body from the realm of moral disapproval.”
Ovid is one of the few who understood the sexist social system of his time, portraying in his poems the expectations and criticisms women were facing. Where men shaped their identity through public engagements, women were defined through the prism of being wives and mothers. In a society where women had little liberty, makeup was undoubtedly a tool of expression and, perhaps, for some, even a means of voicing their individuality.
Women who were using makeup were consciously or unconsciously assuming some control over their lives. They were projecting a self-constructed image that they wished to present to others. Hate it or love it, makeup has always been a tool of affirmation, so “trivial” that many wise men felt the need to control it.
